Oak-dominated ecosystems occur in many areas of the northern hemisphere, support considerable biodiversity, and provide vast benefits to humans. Although notably absent from the southern hemisphere, oak-dominated or mixed-oak dominated forests are found across much of southern and central Europe, northeast Asia, and the eastern and central United States. Oak ecosystems range from closed forests with a dense midstory to open forests or woodlands with continuous canopy or widely spaced trees and dominance of herbaceous vegetation in the understory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Around 80% or more of the plant diversity in oak forest and woodland ecosystems in the eastern US, including a large proportion of rare species, resides in the herbaceous layer, which contributes significantly to nutrient cycling and overall ecosystem function. However, these forests and woodlands have suffered significant degradation over the past century, resulting in dramatic shifts in species composition and structure due to human land-use activities, invasive species, and alterations in disturbance regimes. In particular, fire exclusion has led to the encroachment of fire-intolerant tree species and nonnative shrubs, decreasing both understory light availability and the abundance and diversity of herbaceous plant species.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Restoration of oak ecosystems<\/a> usually involves prescribed burning or a combination of burning, canopy thinning, and control of undesirable woody vegetation. Although these restorative practices encourage the passive recovery of herbaceous flora, restored oak woodlands often lack conservative species in the understory<\/a>. Unlike matrix or ruderal plant species, conservative plant species are those that depend on high-quality or minimally damaged sites and rapidly disappear with degradation. In addition, they often fail to recolonize sites naturally, making them potentially important targets for reintroduction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n (Top) Degraded oak woodland at Missouri Botanical Garden\u2019s Shaw Nature Reserve infested with nonnative shrubs and fire-sensitive tree species and (Bottom) Adjacent restored oak woodland after mechanical control of woody encroachment and six prescribed burns. Note the minimal sunlight penetrating the woodland floor and lack of herbaceous species in the degraded woodland relative to the restored woodland. Photo: (Top) Brad Delfeld and (Bottom) Matthew Albrecht.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Conservative species are notoriously challenging to reintroduce in restoration projects, with soil microbes emerging as a key factor influencing their success. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are particularly crucial in this context; they enhance nutrient uptake and improve stress resistance, benefits that are especially valuable for conservative plant species with specific habitat requirements. For example, one study found that conservative species were more dependent on AMF and exhibited higher habitat specificity compared to less conservative species (Bauer et al. 2018). The practice of soil inoculation with whole soil, which presumably contains beneficial mutualists like AMF, is increasingly employed to boost plant growth and survival in restoration projects. Despite its growing popularity, though, the effects of soil inoculation on the establishment of herbaceous species in oak-dominated ecosystems remain poorly tested.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Another factor that may affect the establishment of conservative plant species is the timing of reintroduction. Environmental conditions are predicted to be more favorable for the establishment of conservative species later in restoration, in part because soil symbionts facilitating plant establishment may only be found in later-successional sites. Alternatively, early restorations may lack the establishment barriers potentially encountered later in restoration, such as competition with established vegetation or soil legacies from early-arriving species, but could be deficient in important microbial mutualists often required by conservative plant species.<\/p>\n\n\n\n To test these hypotheses, we examined the potential role of soil microbial communities on the performance of conservative herbaceous species using an oak woodland restoration chronosequence at the Missouri Botanical Garden\u2019s Shaw Nature Reserve. First, we collected bulked field soil samples from three sites representing different restoration ages (young, intermediate, and old) based on their onset since restoration began (7, 16, 29 years ago) with prescribed burning, selective tree thinning, and non-native shrub control. We quantified several soil abiotic properties (e.g., pH, phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen) and employed DNA metabarcoding to describe the microbial composition of the soil. DNA metabarcoding<\/a> is a cutting-edge technique that identifies many taxa from an environmental sample by sequencing specific genetic markers from extracted DNA. This method provides a comprehensive snapshot of the microbial diversity present, allowing one to better understand otherwise cryptic below ground communities. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Next, we conducted a greenhouse study with three conservative forb species, Geum virginianum<\/em><\/a>, <\/em>Solidago arguta<\/em><\/a>, and Solidago caesia<\/em><\/a>, testing their growth responses to soil inoculum from sites that differ in restoration age. These species are components of the regional species pool<\/a>, but absent from restored oak woodlands at Shaw Nature Reserve. We placed germinated seeds of each species in quart-sized pots filled with a sterilized topsoil mix that mimic oak woodland soils. Each sterile pot (270 in total) was then inoculated with 10\u2009mL of the bulked live field soil (approx. 1% by volume) sourced from one of the three restored sites. Plants were grown for 12 weeks in standard greenhouse conditions and then evaluated for growth using nondestructive measurements.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Tree species and soil microbial communities in restored oak woodlands <\/strong> Bacterial and fungal communities varied in composition across the restoration chronosequence. For example, Firmicutes, a phylum of bacteria noted for surviving in extreme conditions, such as in severely burned areas, was more abundant in soils from the oldest restored woodland, which experienced a greater number of prescribed fires than the other sites. In contrast, the fungal phylum Ascomycota was more abundant in restored woodlands of young and intermediate age. Members of Ascomycota include decomposers that break down organic materials and endophytes that form mutualistic or commensal associations with plants. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Plant-soil interactions in response to soil inoculation<\/strong> Leaf length (cm) of three native forbs after 12 weeks of growth in whole-soil inoculations from young, intermediate, and old restored oak woodlands at Shaw Nature Reserve. Geum virginianum<\/em> (GV), Solidago arguta<\/em> (SA), and Solidago caesia<\/em> (SC).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Results from the DNA metabarcoding provide a clue as to why the soil inoculum treatments induced different plant-growth responses. Soils from the young restoration exhibited increased relative abundance of mutualistic microbes, including AMF and cyanobacteria, and decreased pathogenic taxa after conditioning by each of the three species. In contrast, the oldest restoration site had the greatest relative abundance of pathogens and the lowest relative abundance of mutualists. This enhanced microbial profile in young restorations may facilitate better nutrient uptake, and disease and stress resistance in plants. From a practical perspective, early-stage restorations may provide the most favorable soil microbial community for the establishment of conservative plant species in these oak ecosystems. One possible reason for this could be a shift in the increased relative abundance of AMF-associating tree species (e.g., maple) from older to young restored woodlands. AMF-associating tree species may harbor unique AMF taxa that resulted in increased herbaceous plant growth and AMF colonization for plants conditioned with young soil inoculum.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Interestingly, although some microbial taxa exhibited consistent patterns across all plant species within an inoculation treatment, each plant species also associated with unique microbial taxa when grown in the same soil inoculum treatment. For example, the Glomeraceae, which includes AMF, was marginally more abundant after S. caesia<\/em> was grown in young inoculum, whereas Ascobolaceae \u2013 fungi that feed on decaying and dead matter \u2013 was significantly abundant only when G. virginianum<\/em> was grown in old soil inoculum. This means that species reintroduced during different stages of oak ecosystem restoration could influence key ecological functions by selecting for or against certain microbes, including pathogens that regulate plant community dynamics, decomposers involved in nutrient cycling, and mutualists that enhance plant performance. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Overall, our study demonstrates how restoration age can shape interactions between soil microbes and herbaceous plant species in restored oak woodlands. By better understanding these interactions, we can enhance the restoration and recovery of degraded oak ecosystems. However, an important and lingering question from our study is whether differences in plant growth and microbial communities observed in the greenhouse persist after the focal plant species are transplanted into the field. A study currently underway at Shaw Nature Reserve is addressing this question across different restoration ages and competition treatments. Our study reinforces global calls that emphasize the need for more research on the dynamic nature of plant-microbe relationships and interactions over time during restoration. Advancing scientific research on the relationship between the soil microbiota and ecological restoration practices is crucial for meeting local, regional, biome level and global restoration goals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/mbgecologicalrestoration.wordpress.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/picture1.png?ssl=1\")
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Not surprisingly, we found that younger restored oak woodlands, with historically fewer prescribed fires, had a greater abundance of fire-sensitive tree species (e.g., sugar maple, Acer saccharum<\/em>) than the intermediate and older restored sites. However, younger restored woodlands also exhibited lower levels of soil phosphorus compared to older sites, consistent with previous studies that have shown greater levels of potassium and phosphorus in soils post-burning. Other soil abiotic properties, however, did not differ across the restoration chronosequence. <\/p>\n\n\n\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/mbgecologicalrestoration.wordpress.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/figure-4-morton-east-maples.jpg?ssl=1\")
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After 12 weeks of plant growth in the greenhouse, we found that forbs tended to grow larger leaves when grown in soil inoculum from the younger restoration site compared to the intermediate restoration site. Additionally, S. arguta<\/em> and S. caesia<\/em> grew longer leaves in soil inoculated from the intermediate compared to the old site, while G. virginianum<\/em> plants tended to produce longer leaves when grown in inoculum from young relative to the old restoration site.<\/p>\n\n\n\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/mbgecologicalrestoration.wordpress.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/figure-5.jpg?resize=1920%2C1080&ssl=1\")
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